Her ambition was not be a writer; it was to gain admission to Harvard University to pursue a degree in finance. Cohen graduated from Brown University in and earned a Ph. She founded her business, IvyWise, that same year. While organizing her application materials, Viswanathan showed Cohen a collection of her short stories and poems.
Table 1. I promise! And I kept telling myself, She's only doing this because she loves you. In my defense, it was hard to be uptight and prickly while surrounded by beautiful, fashionable people all telling me how good I'd look in that shade and what this color would do to enhance my cheekbones.
I had few memories of the place, but the ones I held were dream clear: Bathing in a bucket as a little girl. The unnerving richness of buffalo milk drunk from a pewter cup. My Dadaji pouring tea into a saucer so it would cool faster, sipping from the edge of the thin dish, never spilling a drop. Some impressions stood out sharply in my mind, still as clear as freshly developed Polaroids. I remembered the cold, creamy taste of fresh buffalo milk, Babaji pouring Ovaltine from one tin cup to another until froth bubbled thickly on the surface and it was cool enough to drink.
Alloy shopped the book package and the author to Little, Brown and Company, which is owned, ironically, by media mogul conglomerate Time-Warner Brothers. To have the products gain mass appeal, staff members are involved in everything from creating the ideas to finding writers, to designing eye catching book covers Long, It has a staff in New York of about 10 editors who diligently research what's hot in the teen world—what girls are wearing, the music they like, and the TV shows they TiVo.
As a result, both Alloy and Viswanathan may have arrived at either one of the following methods to write How Opal Mehta Got Kissed, Got Wild, and Got a Life: Alloy commissioned a ghost writer to create the book and assigned half the copyright to Viswanathan in return for her promoting the book as her own, or Alloy and Viswanathan agreed that Viswanathan would create the book and assign half the copyright to Alloy in return for its editing, promotion, and packaging services.
Either arrangement is indicative of a collaborative effort. If she did indeed collaborate, Viswanathan most likely continued to work exclusively with editors Asya Muchnick from Little, Brown and Company and Claudia Gabel, an Alloy employee. Both acknowledged and then retracted that they worked with Viswanathan to flesh out the story.
Claiming that she had committed contractually to write two to three new chapters for her book every two weeks in addition to her five courses a semester at Harvard as a freshman, Viswanathan noted the difficulty in finding time to write 50 pages every two weeks.
If she was responsible for writing the majority of the text, the pressure of trying to finish the book quickly in addition to her course load most likely caused her to rely heavily on outside influences to craft the story. Besides writing the book, Viswanathan encountered the additional pressure of weaving in product references, which are elements Alloy required for marketability purposes. Even though the details surrounding the contract terms are not known, most likely Alloy negotiated the addition of these products into the manuscript.
As a result, after Viswanathan acknowledged her unintentional plagiarism, many parties involved with arranging the book deal, writing the book, and marketing the book started to change their stories. Consequently, deciphering how much intervention Alloy Entertainment had in repackaging her ideas is difficult, but many unanswered questions lead back to Alloy employees.
What kind of role did they play in shaping the book and how did they share in the labor of actually writing the book? According to Boston. The discussion surrounding the topic did not die down after the announcement.
Many in the media continued to seek information regarding the creative process involved with the writing of the book. Those at Alloy insisted Viswanathan wrote every word, although Alloy President Leslie Morgenstein notes in an e-mail that his firm ''helped Kaavya conceptualize and plot the book.
Why Viswanathan did not save herself and point the finger at Gabel and others in the corporate publishing field is difficult to answer. Most likely, the situation presented itself as a catch, with no way to exit the situation without consequences. If she turns the table on Gabel and indicates that Gabel contributed heavily to the book, she then has to deal with the repercussions of the public announcement that she indeed did not write the book.
After talking with legal counsel about the ramifications and her future, Viswanathan, most likely, was urged to accept the responsibility for the authorship. Her photographic memory takes the blame for the plagiarism and everyone at Alloy and Little Brown is satisfied Gumbel, What is most surprising in this case, however, is the number of online blog postings that note that this should be a non-issue and does not deserve attention because of the type of genre in which the incident occurred — chick lit.
Ironically, the most comprehensive definition of chick lit is noted on the controversial website of Wikipedia. In the past few years, chick lit has morphed into several different subgenres; for example, lady lit, teen lit, ethnic lit, black lit, chica lit, which targets English-dominant, middle-class American Latinas, and a male equivalent known as lad lit, guy lit, or nick lit, which includes such authors as Ben Elton, Mike Gayle, and Nick Hornby.
International publishers are also trying to generate interest abroad. In India, throngs of readers are pressing publishers to seek more writers who can craft additional chick lit books to capture a captive audience.
Catching the attention of millions of readers worldwide, chick lit stories are quick, enjoyable reads. Most of the stories revolve around a similar theme: A girl, usually of high school or college age, lives in a big city, searches for Mr. Right while shopping, hanging out with friends, and attending parties, gets dumped, and finally finds or almost finds the man of her dreams Donadio, Most chick lit plots do not depend on originality in story development, so the plot is one that is repeated again and again.
Recognizing a niche, however, publishers are modifying the plots to some degree so that they appeal to audiences of different ages and cultures, in addition to writing sequels for the books that sell well. Chick lit is also making its presence felt in the academic world, but scholars are divided on its literary merits. The discussion is prolific on college campuses as younger faculty members weave the material into their course discussions and assignments.
The fallout from this action means that faculty and students — undergraduate and graduate — are lending their voices to the conversation and in a sense, contributing to the legitimacy of the genre. Those opposed to the legitimacy of chick lit focus on the content and its lack of rich, thought-provoking topics. Because of this lack of substance and the very narrow takes on real life issues, many feel that the books are offshoots of romance novels and even though they are selling, the books are not literary in content and thus should not be placed alongside literary works.
Primarily, scholars argue that a lack of consequences for characters and the fantasy-like solutions to real life problems undermine the significance of the material Olen, Supporters argue that chick lit does explore real issues for contemporary women and because women of older generations do not understand these issues, they do not understand the merits of chick lit.
Since the plots revolve around essential issues relevant to women, such as personal issues, work-related problems, and societal pressures, chick lit allows readers to live vicariously through these young fictional characters and explore their roles as females in the 21 st century.
As a result, younger readers are introduced to relevant issues regarding feminism while older readers revisit their own youthful experiences through a new set of perspectives that the books offer. Consequently, Merrick and her contemporaries think serious literary writers are not getting the recognition or the shelf space they deserve. Many chick lit writers contend that their work explores many topics prevalent in literary fiction.
Olen argues, however, that even though this may be relevant, many of the chick lit books are formulaic and always end on a happy note with utter resolution. The discussion surrounding the validity of chick lit presents itself not only in academia, but it has taken up residency in the publishing world as well. Publishers recognize that readers like the reliable entertainment value that chick lit offers its readers.
Many, however, take issue with the collaborative efforts between writers and marketers to develop plots in addition to the mass marketing blitz that come attached with chick lit books.
Similar to other contemporary genres, chick lit is propelled onto bookshelves by book packagers such as Alloy that work to help shape the plot and secure contracts with companies to promote products in the books.
In defense of their actions, publishers maintain that the number of book buyers is shrinking. In fact, because of the availability of wireless adaptations, Americans are using more and more media to access information and entertainment. In response to shifts in market share, publishing houses, which are owned mostly by big conglomerates, have also shifted decision making authority to accountants who ask first about potential sales rather than literary content.
Publishers are also customizing books and running the very smallest quantity that they can. Chick lit printing runs counter to this trend, however— many chick lit books initial print runs are at , Smiley, Chick lit sales have encouraged publishers to increase their efforts. Requesting sequels to best sellers, publishers hope to attract even greater market share by using bright colors, mostly pink and chartreuse green, and images of scantily dressed women who are shopping or a picture of a high-heeled shoe on the cover.
Bookstores are rethinking the placement of books as well. Most bookstores sell several chick lit and romance novels, but they are not shelved in their respective categories. Instead some stores have shifted the books to a weekend fiction section. According to one bookseller, "When we had a romance section, we never sold anything out of it. But after adding some lighter weight fiction, romance was mixed together with some fiction and moved across from mysteries and thrillers.
Even though book packagers have been in business for some time, the questionable strategies that Alloy and other marketing firms employ in creating chick lit fiction continue to alter traditional roles of publishers and authors. Why publishers outsource their material to packagers is easy to ascertain: Packagers do it all. They search for writers, develop story lines, edit the manuscripts, design the covers, and meet deadlines all in the name of huge financial gain.
How much they shape or reshape the content, however, is at the heart of the argument surrounding the validity of chick lit as a legitimate genre.
The legitimacy of both the chick lit genre and the chick lit writer are suspect because of the growing influence that packagers have over publishers. Because they have the ability to take large financial risks and to be more selective about what of projects they assume, book packagers have able to streamline the publishing process by creating literary assembly lines.
To this end, chick lit has become another media niche that book packagers are trying to fill. Yet at the same time, book packaging strategies are leading the publishing industry down a deleterious path in addition to altering the cultural framework that exists for readers of texts. Readers have some expectations of originality as they move from book to book and genre to genre. However, savvy readers also understand that in most cases, originality in certain formulaic fiction genres is minimal.
New Yorker writer Malcolm Gladwell notes that the lack of creativity and originality is inherent in the chick lit genre itself. This misperception, however, that readers do not take issue with creativity and originality is problematic. Are readers concerned only with final product? Have they become so disillusioned with media hype that they care little for the creative process itself? Her autonomy as an author was comprised from the very beginning Pfeiffer, In other words, she lost control of her creation.
In this case, the traditional framework where writers are ultimately responsible for their final project is tested. Does a writer surrender to the packager all of his her responsibility for the final product? For most involved in writing, regardless of the genre, integrity and the craft of writing itself do matter. For this reason alone, perhaps chick lit should have a place in the classroom discussion not because it has initiated another track in the conversation regarding feminism but more importantly, perhaps, because it exemplifies the importance of the creative process, artistic integrity, and originality, and finally, because it furthers the discourse between reader and writer.
Clark-Flory, T. Choose carefully: Chicks or lit? Content for hire. Publishing Trends. Donadio, R. The chick-lit pandemic. The New York Times. Ferriss, S. A generational divide over chick lit. Hogg and Turner, One of the domains in which racial stereotypes are reproduced and disseminated is through the mass media. The news genre is par- ticularly important in the reproduction of stereotypes. Therefore, using stereotypes is more efficient and effortless, and journalists, due to time and space constraints, may be more likely to rely on them.
Although investiga- tions on cross-cultural psychology have found that people with a Latin-American back- ground tend to be more collectivist and attached to the family than Anglo-Americans e.
Additionally, the journalists who work in Spanish-language news media write to and about their own community. Hence, they would also share a sense of belonging with their sources of information. Because Spanish-language news media workers are in-group members of the Hispanic population with strong links to their audience and sources, research would expect to find not only different frames to describe Latinas but also less stereo- typical constructions.
According to the hierarchies-of-influence model Shoemaker and Reese, , nevertheless, the individual news workers are only the first level of the hierarchical model that has an impact on the media content. These fac- tors affect content as long as the news workers have enough power within the organiza- tion to supersede other media variables, such as routines, organizational constraints and external pressures.
While some scholars have argued that such an influ- ence exists e. Craft and Wanta, ; Rodgers and Thorson, , others have asserted that the effect is minor due to organizational constraints Gans, ; Liebler and Smith, This US socialization embeds them in similar routines and ideological influences to white journalists who work in a general market outlet.
For instance, they tend to use the same institutional sources and are exposed to the same frames used by prestigious news media Rodriguez, They are also embedded in US ideological tenets such as the values of free market and individual achievement Shoemaker and Reese, Furthermore, they covered the same types of stories: crime and human interest Moran, Thus, it could be argued that the US assimila- tion of Spanish-language media practitioners may lessen their ability to portray Latinas differently from their white counterparts.
At that time, the Latino marketers — mostly from Puerto Rico and Cuba — did not rely on research, but on their life experiences. To date, the pan-ethnic approach is deeply ingrained in the Spanish-language media and the economic survival of the Latino media depends on its maintenance Rodriguez, Despite the current use of research, most of the Hispanic image that was previously created remains unchallenged.
For instance, marketing books on how to reach Hispanics use stereotypical descriptions to portray Latinas, such as engine of their family, romantic, conscious of their appearance and active buyers of personal care products e. Although the racial ideologies may differ between English- and Spanish-language media, the arche- typical representation of women is likely to pervade both types of media.
Ross, ; Seidman Mildburn et al. The framing paradigm The media framing approach is used here to examine whether there is a difference between English- and Spanish-language news media in the way they depict Latinas, and to explore how the identification of journalists with the audience and the cultural context may explain the divergences or similarities. This study uses a sociological approach, taking media frames as dependent vari- ables Gitlin, []; Hertog and McLeod, This definition emphasizes that frames are durable and shape the discourse through symbolic devices that may be explicit or embedded in the discourse Reese, According to Hertog and McLeod , these framing devices include metaphors, myths and narratives.
Additionally, Entman proposes that frames may be manifested in the text through the inclusion or exclusion of certain keywords, stereotyped images and sentences that reinforce judgments. These theoretical foundations and literature generate the following research questions: RQ1: What frames are most frequently used by the US Spanish-language newspaper El Nuevo Herald to portray Latinas?
RQ3: Is there a substantial difference between the frames used by the Spanish- language publication El Nuevo Herald compared to the frames used by the English-language newspaper The Miami Herald?
Method This study employs both qualitative and quantitative analyses. Bridging both approaches is critical. Both publications make their editorial decisions independently and compete with each other Clary, This current editorial independence has a long and, at times, controver- sial history. To compare the frames used by both newspapers, the articles of the MH and ENH were selected by LexisNexis and Ethnic NewsWatch searches, respectively, between and , using terms regarding Hispanic women.
A thorough reading of the articles helped to identify embedded frames and interpret the results. Following the approach of Hertog and McLeod of linking core concepts with peripheral ideas, six major frames i. The definition of each frame was based on meta- phors, catchphrases, keywords, and stereotyped images.
As part of the qualitative exam- ination, interviews with two journalists that at the time of the investigation worked at the MH and ENH, respectively, were conducted in order to contextualize the findings. In the quantitative assessment, the stories were examined by a content analysis. The coding scheme contained identification variables i. Using the news story as unit of analysis, the most salient and manifest frames were coded based on their inclusion coded as 1 or exclusion coded as 0.
The subframes — less prominent and dependent on the major frame — were identified through the provision and repetition of framing devices throughout the news story. Each story was classified under one major frame but could have several subframes. For example, a story about a successful Latina that highlights her achievements in the headline would be organized around the success frame. These descriptions would be classified as subframes. To calculate the intercoder reliability, a random sub- sample of 10 percent of all articles was coded by a second coder, a journalism graduate student, who received the list of frames and subframes.
The success, oppression, family devotion, and sensuality frames were the most prominent in the Spanish-language publication. Table 1. SF Pioneer 11 15 n. However, a z-test test of proportions was conducted for illustrative purposes.
Correa Success frame. The most important and persistent idea used by ENH to depict Latinas was success. Almost half of the news stories of ENH were organized around this frame see Table 1. In ENH, the idea of successful Hispanic women was associated with other subframes, such as overcoming, hardworking, family sacrifice and sensuality.
When the stories used the success frame, they often highlighted the idea that Latinas had to surmount obstacles and work hard to achieve their goals. The Cuban American actress is always busy In 13 percent of the pieces the suc- cess frame was associated with family sacrifice.
Many stories suggested that Latinas, although successful in the public sphere, are not absolved of the responsibility for the domestic realm.
In 12 percent of the stories, the success frame was linked with the sensuality sub- frame. ENH subtly included this subframe, describing how the women were dressed or adding adjectives, such as sensual and beautiful, when it referred to women who have succeeded in the public sphere. A second example emerged in the leading paragraph of a story about a lawyer who specialized in civil rights.
Oppression frame. This frame depicts Latinas as victims and hampered by adverse condi- tions. This idea — present in 15 percent of the stories — was divided into three subframes: political, economic and sexual oppression. As Table 1 shows, the most relevant sub- frame in ENH was sexual oppression.
Many stories about health are organized around this subframe, in which Latinas are depicted as unwilling and frightened to talk about their sexuality, and as dependent on their husbands. Family devotion frame. Almost half of the articles were associated with the self-sacrifice subframe. They showed how Latinas tend to put their families first at the expense of their own lives.
Sensuality frame. Although this idea emerged as a subframe, it also appeared as the most prominent idea in 10 percent of the stories see Table 1. In sum, ENH paid strong attention to the triumphs of overcoming and hardworking Latinas but it also highlighted the family sacrifices of these successful females and tended to stereotypically portray them as sexually oppressed, family devoted and overly sensual.
The success, attractive consumer, affirmative action and oppression frames were the most relevant ideas in the English-language publication. Success frame. As Table 1 shows, 32 percent of the articles used the success frame. In the MH, this idea was mainly associated with the overcoming and pioneer subframes. The English-language newspaper emphasized the individual achievements of Hispanic women, and highlighted the status of being the first who broke the barriers. Attractive consumer frame.
The attractive consumer frame describes Latinas as a new profitable market niche. This frame was the second most frequently used by the MH — 29 percent of the stories were organized around it. The stories almost evenly described Latinas as consumers of beauty and entertainment industries see Table 1. Although the sensuality frame was used less in the MH than in ENH, the English-language newspaper subtlety alluded to this stereo- typical image under this subframe.
For instance, an article about the expansion of Sears to the Hispanic market asserted in the first paragraphs: Norma Rodriguez was impressed as she perused the clothing racks at the Sears in Coral Gables … the colors were vibrant, the styles fashionable Spanish women, we have a lot over here. Rodriguez is exactly the type of costumer that Sears is aiming to please.
Hoag, In the entertainment-product consumer subframe, Latinas were usually depicted as an attractive but underserved marketable group that did not get attention from the entertain- ment market. Hoag, Affirmative action frame. Thirteen percent of the stories were organized around this idea. Although the MH used the sexual oppression subframe more, the political and economic subframes were also prominent.
Political oppression may be especially relevant for the Heralds because a great majority of the Hispanic population in South Florida is Cuban. They are represented by the press as victims of political exile. The economic subframe, in turn, high- lights the hardships of immigrants. Castro really has to fall. Briefly, the MH highlighted the individual achievements of successful Latinas and described them as a new profitable market.
It also depicted them as a minority group that is the victim of political and financial oppression and needs particular attention from the government and NGOs. Table 1 shows that there were important differences in every frame, except for oppression, even after controlling for the gender of the journalists. Although success was the most relevant frame used by both newspapers to portray Latinas, the publications used different approaches to this idea.
However, ENH also included ideas such as family sacrifice, sensuality and discrimination that were scarcely present in the MH. Attractive consumer vs attractive and devoted woman. In contrast, the sensuality frame was used significantly more by the Spanish-language paper than by its English counterpart see Table 1. Similarly, ENH also used another stereotypical and feminine frame of reference to portray Latinas — family devotion.
In other words, while the general market outlet described Latinas as a new profitable market, the ethnic publication high- lighted Latinas as sensual, beautiful, exotic and devoted to family. Need of special assistance. Only the English-language publication transmit- ted the idea that Latinas make up an underserved minority group that needs special atten- tion from NGOs and governmental agencies. Same view on oppression. In the case of oppression and its respective subframes, there were no substantial differences between the papers and the media equally represented Hispanic women as politically, economically and sexually oppressed.
Although both publications portrayed Latinas as successful women, they focused on different aspects. For instance, while ENH emphasized the family sacrifices to achieve their goals, the MH highlighted their pioneer condition.
Analysis and conclusion The goal of this study was to compare the framing of Latinas by the Miami Herald and El Nuevo Herald to explore whether stronger media identification with the audience influences the type of frames used to depict Hispanic women. ENH and its reproduction of well-known stereotypes This study found that ENH emphasized the triumphs of overcoming and hardworking Latinas but it also highlighted the family sacrifices of these successful women to achieve their professional goals.
Why does the Spanish-language newspaper, despite its identification with the audience, reproduce commonplaces about Latinas? One possible explanation for the phenomenon is the use of self-stereotyping. The literature shows that people might apply stereotypes to perceive and depict their own community, especially if they are members of a minority group e. Hogg and Turner, ; Simon and Hamilton, Hispanic journalists are part of a minority group, whose stereotypical portrayal is overly pervasive, and work under time and space constraints.
Hence, they might rely on shortcuts and transmit those gener- alizations. In addition, since journalists who work for ENH are in-group members of the Latino population, they might be less likely to be blamed for racial attitudes.
Regarding the family-devotion and family-sacrifice frames, it is probable that fam- ily values are extensively displayed by many Hispanics. Research in cross-cultural and ethnic-minority psychology has identified that individuals of a Latin-American background tend to be more collectivist and show a greater attachment to the family than Anglo-Americans e.
Therefore, the attitudinal characteristics of the news workers and embedded ideologies of Hispanic culture — the first and last factors of the hierarchical model that shape the media con- tent Shoemaker and Reese, — might have played a role in the way ENH covered Latinas. Hispanic media may reproduce this idea more easily not only because their news workers are immersed in that culture but also because they suspect that for their audience the family is also important.
Among Latin-American immigrants, the family roots are deep … our experiences help us to think and shape our coverage … But you also have to understand the interests [of your audience] or what is out there.
One is the construction of the pan-ethnic identity, which homog- enizes national identities and disseminates a monolithic image about the Hispanic population e. Latinas are sexy. The results show that those images are not only ingrained in the mass media in general movies, entertainment shows and marketing ads but also in the news genre.
A second possible reason is that the strong presence of Latina artists who highlight their sensuality e. One editor of ENH explained: Miami is an entertaining city, with many shows … So, the stereotype of the sensual Latin woman, with these movements, may be reflected [in the paper] because there are many shows.
Although ENH does not use this sexualized frame in a manifestly negative way and tries to boost a desirable image of Latinas, the consequences of its usage are problematic. It also described them as a new profitable market for the marketing and entertain- ment industries. According to the literature, the idea that Hispanic women are a minority and underserved group that needs special attention is a stereotypical frame used by the news media to portray Latinos e.
However, it is important to note that, compared to the Spanish-language publication, the MH did not strongly reproduce stereotypical frames about Latinas. Although it subtly alluded to the sensuality of Latinas through the beauty- product consumer subframe, it was not as prominent as in ENH. These findings come as a surprise because the literature suggests that out-group members — such the English- language media with respect to the Hispanic population — are more likely to use stereo- types that are overly present.
One possible explanation of this result is that journalists who work in the MH may be more sensitive about directly reproducing these stereotypes than other newspapers given that 43 percent of its readers are Latinos.
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